Increase Interoperability And Improve Business Processes Through The Use Of Apis

Posted on: 16th May 2023

Question

Topic I Chose:

Statement of the Problem: Systems are stovepiped resulting in data not being available where it needs to be to support global business processes.

Requiring business data from all systems available via API will improve data availability and process efficiencies.

Definitions: Stovepipe System: A stovepipe system is an system that operates as a standalone program and shares little, if any, data with other systems. etc.

Limitations: Limited access to data. Certain types of data may not be exported from certain countries due to privacy laws. etc.

Delimitations: I am curious about business process and integration wanted to improve standards for data sharing to improve business processes.

Assignment:

The process is to read the case study and, based upon the opportunities afforded in the case, select for development an action research topic (feasibility study). The course deliverables are:

Feasibility study (four chapters with title page, footnotes, etc.) (APA writing style)

Abstract (Short version of the project i.e., Dissertations Abstract)

The paper should contain:

Situation Analysis (if your study requires a SA). Describe the situation your project will explore. Note: Your completed situation analysis will include a description of the industry, the organization involved, its culture and the competitive environment together with the issue to be explored in your project.

Statement of the Problem

* Premise (if your study requires a premise). Present a concise positive statement of what the student proposes to substantiate by the correlation of the primary research project. Qualitative terms must be defined, and the premise should be measurable. Example: That productivity has been improved by Human Relations training.) In the example premise, the following terms would be defined in a presentation entitled “Definitions” immediately following the premise statements: (a) Productivity. (b) Improved, and (c) Human Relation Training.

Definitions

Disclaimers or Study Limitation. Because the student realistically can deal only with limited variables, there should be statements of other variables not entertained in the study which could distort results or findings. Example: The impact of unexpected massive layoffs.

Delimitations

Work Plan - Applied Research Methodology: This section tells what primary and secondary research methodology will be used in the paper.

Work Plan - Basic topic development

Bibliography/Footnotes/Endnotes/Appendix

Questionnaires, tables, exhibits, charts, and other inclusions must be provided as part of the project paper and may be placed in the appendix of the paper.

*Premise isn't needed unless the study is proving the statement of the problem as a 'yes' or 'no'.

Case Study the topic was picked from: The following case study is the

super shell for the ITM 6000 project.

BACKGROUND:

The company is a global organization of 250,000 associates located throughout the world with plants, office, and associates in every country.

The parent has given direction that a reengineering is to happen to give a total systems approach to the organization.

The IS/IT function is being globalized with functions being centralized, co-located, decentralized, and virtualized in different divisions throughout the world. You have been challenged with the task of doing an action research-oriented feasibility study of one of the topics in one of the defined major IS/IT functional areas. The company is moving so fast that many areas are under study including the following:

Management > Business Process and Integration (This is the topic I selected - specifically about application interoperability using technologies like Application Programming Interfaces (API) to increase data sharing across stovepiped systems)

The staff has been organized in groups and others are working individually, through the PMO direction, to quickly develop feasibility studies so management can pull together a phased approach to the conversion of one of the major subsidiaries in this global organization.

image description Top level essay Service Our professional unemployed professors are waiting for your signal to offer you the best academic writing service you so deserve.
illustration of a woman populating a checklist.

Solution

Abstract

In today’s competitive marketplace, a well-planned overall organizational structure is essential. However, the structure is meaningless without a practice management system enabling information sharing across the company. The old management structure has been rendered useless or rather less effective compared to the new well-planned structures that allow the interoperability of different organizations and the free sharing of information. Organizational characteristics, relationships, competition, and performance all play a role in determining these factors. An integrated enterprise process results from all of the parts working together.

A good structure with a well-structured management system will be insufficient to provide a strong foundation for developing and sustaining improvements. A management system should include all elements that might influence a firm’s operations to be successful. Organizational characteristics, internal and external connections, competitive pressures, strategic issues, and company success are the main division of organizations. All stakeholders must be considered while developing a management system. Stakeholders are anyone interested in what you’re doing: a customer, employee, investor, supplier, top management, or even a community member. The organizational structure should be created to improve social and investor synergy while still maintaining operational efficiency.

Increase Interoperability And Improve Business Processes Through The Use Of Apis

Statement of the Problem

Stovepiped systems imply that data is restricted from being accessible where it is needed to support various business processes. API access to business data from all systems will enhance data accessibility and productivity improvements. In addition, there are several ways that the organization can manage and conduct its business under the stovepiped systems.

Managing the Expansion of Stovepiped Organizations

Implementing customer-centric structures and procedures in public organizations is challenging because of the difficulty of managing cross-functional boundaries and the lack of standardization in the systems and processes used. Public organizations are examined in this study, which compares and contrasts the findings with those of a prior study that focused on the financial sector. The interviews with public organizations show that the stovepipe issue is still clear and that cross-functional partnership, processes, customer satisfaction, and coordination of activities and networks all require different advancement or growth. According to this study, leaders in governmental bodies prioritize political objectives over client relations, and the political level ranks higher than customer requirements (McNamara & Morris, 2022). On the other hand, public organizations have longer timeframes and less capacity to execute changes than the private sector, leading to weaker client-related incentives and greater organizational inertia in both culture and collaboration of stovepiped organizations.

There has long been a broad distinction between public and private institutions. When producing new income, public institutions must consider various objectives and restrictions. The ultimate authority over their existence rests with publicly elected bodies. Nevertheless, organizations in the public sector share several common characteristics, such as Stifling bureaucracies and diverse stakeholders in many processes – no crossing of limits is possible as stakeholder groups and procedures often stretch further than the constraints of an agency or department; abrupt and dramatic shifts in policy direction; initiative overlap; a large number and range of activities; as well as unreasonable expectations.

Public sector organizations are frequently confronted with meeting citizens’ growing expectations, which have grown dramatically in the past few decades while operating within budgetary restraints. Public and private methodologies for planning have become increasingly intertwined due to the growing customer needs. Government sector “phenomena” such as Total Quality Development and Administration Process Re-engineering have emerged over time (Stelmack & Gomez, 2021). Despite telecommunications services, a lot of input is required for improvement. Therefore, a reasonable approach to e-government application is required, considering all potential benefits and barriers.

As new technologies are adopted and rely more heavily upon, organizations evolve. Hierarchies are disrupted, boundaries are dissolved, merits and status are re-allocated as learning processes re-allocate status and complexity increases. When it comes to the government sector’s cultural transformations, they may be bigger than other industries. Soft” issues, such as convincing staff, government members, customers, and other partners that a change is necessary or beneficial, are among those that must be addressed (Stelmack & Gomez, 2021). In addition, workers in most public sector organizations may undergo a radical shift in their working conditions. Customers benefit from an organization’s business processes. Therefore, there should be a synchronization between the information systems and business procedures. Consumer satisfaction is more efficiently and effectively delivered when components are integrated.

There are still many standalone systems with their presentation layer, enterprise services logic, and data system in many modern IT architectures. Stovepipes, also known as silo application fields, were developed by departments to computerize paper-based systems and streamline operations within a single division (Stelmack & Gomez, 2021). Departmental boundaries have changed over time. On several occasions, the structures can open up to the general public via telecommunication services such as WAP integrations, a call centre, or an internet shopping portal via various channels, including email and text messaging. Multi-device support, cross-functional business process control, and accurate online information are just some of the issues IT organizations must deal with. There is a strong culture of siloed thinking in the organizations. They try to reduce power consumption through heavily integrated systems. As a result, users are wary of making any alterations to their current software. Planning involves self-contained tasks over which they have control for various reasons, including siloed methodologies.

The implementation of customer-centred structures and procedures in public organizations is hindered by the difficulties associated with cross-functional boundaries. In light of the rapidity and strategy of customer frontline adjustments, the focus has shifted to procedures and the potential need for more assimilation between IT and close-to-the-customer activities. It’s not just public sector organizations that face the challenges of siloed departments; measures encompassing frontline service to customers and an organization’s use of services also face these issues (Stelmack & Gomez, 2021). Services must also be linked between organizations, such as government agencies or other public organizations, to achieve the different functionality required in the interoperability of stovepiped organizations. According to experts, the most effective IT capabilities can only be achieved through inter-departmental interoperability. On the other hand, this paper is concerned with intra-organizational cooperation.

Definitions

Stovepipe System: A stovepipe system is a program that operates as a standalone unit and does not communicate much if any, data with other programs.

An API: APIs are a means of linking two applications so that data may be exchanged between them. They can also be thought of as a link between programs that allows them to exchange information. Programmers and applications communicate through this intermediary (Ofoeda et al., 2019). APIs are used whenever you use a messaging feature or access real-time information, like checking the weather.

(a) Productivity

There are several ways in which a customized API can be used to increase the productivity of any given organization. That includes, for example, the fact that A custom API can supercharge the mobile game. That can help the organization in increasing its productivity in several aspects. Research has it that, in the preceding year, 75% of adults used a smartphone, and smartphone ownership continued to increase while desktop device usage decreased. You are well aware of the link between the quality of the consumer experience and your business’s bottom line. Creating a personalized API for your mobile customers can improve their experience while reducing your workload.

A doctor’s office is a great example. The usual procedure for most individuals is to show up 15 minutes early and carry their luggage as they fill out an extensive pile of paperwork that would normally take twice as long. This can lead to extremely short interviews. Consequently, you only answer the most basic questions and even bypass others. In this scenario, both the patient and the doctor serve as the company’s public face. Is the firm prepared to satisfy customers’ demands in the best possible manner under these circumstances? Which I do not conquer with. We’ve all been in situations that require our haste reaction or need a faster response, which mostly includes emergencies. Due to such reasons, a back-end developer could develop a tailored API for this office, allowing clients to transfer medical records and reschedule consultations on the go quickly. APIs allow businesses to reduce the time and effort spent on information management. As a result, the client is happier, staff members spend less time generating reports, and everyone financially benefits. API development for mobile consumers is a must rather than a luxury. It’s critical.

APIs also spur the Growth of Revenue Channels because Information can be exchanged between partnership agreements using APIs. They make it easier to work together and transfer data. API innovation gives your company the chance to collaborate with other businesses in your industry. Customers and partners can easily exchange data sets. For example, working with a museum or even a coffee shop that showcases the work of local artists can be a good fit if you own an art supply store. Each time a piece is clicked on, information about the forms of media used and directions to your location can be retrieved from your website.

Connecting several applications and services might also help you be more productive, even if you do everything yourself. A few experts on your team could help, but the time they spend hopping from app to app would be more valuable spent constructing effective marketing content for your company. As a result, one or more people are overworked and underutilized. Assume your digital marketing campaign is succeeding and you’re happy with the results. You may want to take a step back, however. Your social media management data analysis, your response time on your homepage, or how many direct leads your emails yield are just the beginning.

However, API development customized to your company’s needs can reduce the time you and your employees spend on time-consuming tasks. In addition, a single, easy-to-use tool can help your business become more efficient and productive by bringing together information from multiple sources. As digital marketing takes centre stage, it’s no surprise that many business owners are also tech-savvy. However, there are also numerous responsibilities to manage. A lot is going on in your business, whether you’re evaluating the results of the latest marketing strategy, improving the efficiency of your employees, or thinking up new ways to reach an untapped market.

Fortunately, there’s an answer for you that’s just three letters long. An API may be all you need to transform your business and the people you can reach. First, building a successful relationship is a step toward being successful. Then, you can count on the experts at Source Web Solutions when you’re ready to take your company to the next level. Finally, your business will benefit significantly from our custom API development services.

(b) Improved

Stovepipe Company’s current separate analogy, the Stovepipe System Antipattern, represents a lack of system-wide management and coordination. Subsystem coordination is the focus of the Stovepipe System Antipattern. There are no common abstractions for subsystems in this Antipattern,  as well as there are no common conventions for multisystem in a Stovepipe Enterprise. The improvement of sub-components is achieved by using various integration strategies and processes, such as the interoperability framework strategy(Stelmack & Gomez, 2021). However, the interoperability framework for each pair of subsystems is not readily transferable to other components, hindering improvement as all system modules are integrated. There are also many inherent correlations between system configuration, installation details, and current system state, making the proposed system fragile. Extensions provide extra point-to-point integration connections, even though achieving that is usually a hard task that requires a specialist. The complexity of the stovepipe increases dramatically over time as new capabilities and alterations are added, making system expansion and repairs extremely difficult.

(c) Human Relation Training

Any company’s internal and external relationships benefit from a networked management system because it facilitates better communication.   Therefore, a system designer ought to be knowledgeable about complex human-to-human and human-to-computer connections throughout an organization for a system to succeed.

Stovepipes, or “vertical, separate management systems,” can cause harm to a company’s internal workings. Stovepipes cause a lack of exchanging data with departments. Business tends to grow when a company’s management system allows for the joint use of company information and advances a complementary approach to handling outside customers, suppliers, and competitors (Shalamonov, 2019). A “forward-thinking approach” can “bring together specific functions within an integrated management system.”

People, automated processes, and the industry must consider developing an excellent organizational monitoring system. A company’s ability to self-regulate is essential if it hopes to prosper financially and positively impact the community in which it operates (Shalamonov, 2019). Keeping track of everything is impossible without a system that connects everyone, every department, and every aspect of the company’s operations. In addition, the culture of a company and the culture of the surrounding community can be affected by a company’s management system.

Limitations

Set legislations regulate the volume of data shared on the internet. Nations with stricter privacy rules have higher restrictions on data volume exported from them. Everyone from individuals to organizations to government agencies must confront the same concerns when processing and conveying data. Many problems were identified through the Copenhagen Expert Workshop, the Joint CSTP-GSF, and the Stockholm Government Transparency workshops; as a result, these concerns are interrelated (Presti, 2021). Trust may be increased by empowering users so that they can address some of the risks associated with greater collection and management. When designing incentive programs, there must be a balance between private and public interests. When dealing with these policy issues, the “data policy pitfall,” as debated at the European Expert Workshop, is the desire to solve a multifaceted problem. Flexible data governance models that consider the various types and contexts in which data is used are essential.

EASD can positively impact society and the economy and support public leadership. However, there are several downsides to allowing anyone to access and share their data, such as the invasion of privacy, the violation of communication policies, and the flow of information in various organizations. Furthermore, by losing privacy or privacy, other credible private interests, like those of the business, maybe violated (Presti, 2021). Therefore, the advantages of EASD must be measured against the costs and sovereign rights of all parties involved, including the government, private corporations, and national governments (the protection of their privacy, IPRs, and national security). This is specifically related to sensitive information.

Privacy and intellectual property rights (IPRs), and legal business and non-commercial preferences, must be protected or incentives to contribute and invest in information improvement. The threats of abuse of the copyright holder, such as personal information, will be harmed. Users’ apprehension about sharing data, including Personal Information, and even using internet services altogether is due, at least in part, to the risks of privacy breaches. In addition, systemic risk to society can arise when numerous appropriate holders are concurrently impacted, as is the case in substantial data breaches involving personal information.

Delimitations

I got interested in business procedures and integration and wanted to improve data sharing standards to enhance company processes. Using promote the business, applications can be improved and spread throughout an organization as business processes and needs change. Many different technologies are used to implement business process integration (BPI), which improves the flow and exchange of data among various applications, people, and processes within and outside of an organization (Amado et al., 2018). As a result, businesses can benefit from BPI while still reaping the benefits of their existing investments in IT systems. With immense knowledge in implementations, mobility, cloud solutions, service-oriented layout (SOA), and any other relevant assimilation touchpoints, resellers can best assist customers in integrating business applications, processes, and information internally or with partners, suppliers, and clients.

Resellers who have this information at their disposal can better assist their clients in locating, developing, implementing, and maintaining integration solutions. Furthermore, improved processes help organizations compete more effectively by reducing costs, increasing efficiency, improving customer service, streamlining decision-making, decreasing risk, responding quickly to regulatory changes, and increasing compliance (Amado et al., 2018). Therefore there will be metrics and strategies for continuously improving the workflow automation in the various corporates.

Business Process and Integration In a Company 

Businesses that want to connect systems and information quickly need to implement Business Interconnection (BPI) to achieve efficiency. Automation of business processes, system integration, and secure data sharing across numerous applications are all possible thanks to BPI. The ability to connect internal and external systems is enabled by overcoming integration challenges (Manik, 2022). It’s also possible to automate management, operational, and supporting processes with the help of BPI technology. In this way, businesses gain an advantage over their competition by focusing less time and energy on integration issues and more on attracting new customers.

Large corporations could only afford business process integration software in the past. However, in today’s competitive business environment, many internal departments, such as advertising, trades, service quality, and supply chain management, must collaborate more closely (Manik 2022). As a result, increased productivity is achieved by integrating institutional, operational, and support processes.

Barriers to Integration

Complex integration requires the use of specialized software. Custom interconnection is a popular approach to tackling the problem of achieving seamless interoperability. Point-to-point integrations between applications and services are required for this method. However, when businesses expand and connections increase, a point-to-point structure, or “spaghetti code,” becomes unwieldy, fragile, and expensive to maintain (Wicaksono et al., n.d). In addition, a lack of a data integration solution often necessitates manually entering information. Individuals must manually move data between applications, resulting in a “swivel chair” data entry with this data transfer method. It’s a time-consuming and costly process. Some businesses employ data loaders or other technologies to aid in integration, but they aren’t always scalable owing to restricted service access.

Integration of business processes

Organizations are on the lookout for a way to connect with their partners, suppliers, and customers outside their internal systems. The goal of workflow organization is to improve task efficiency and meet customers’ needs better. Businesses benefit from increased transparency and adaptability, resulting in improved performance and new ideas. Process models and data models interact more efficiently when automated workflows (Labelle & Kemmerer, 2022). When it comes to boosting productivity, business process reengineering helps companies analyze and implement improvements for process automation and integrated business processes. Automating and synchronizing critical leadership and operational processes can ensure that businesses adhere to standards (Manik, 2022). Support and financial reporting can be incorporated with marketing, sales, and purchasing core organizations to improve exposure and cooperation among team members. As a result of computer-controlled business operations, companies are free to concentrate on bringing in new customers.

The Optimization Of Interoperability Between Organizations through BPI

Connectivity between various organizations necessitates using Business Process Integration (BPI) (for instance, multinational corporations). BPI automates and integrates processes and systems in different organizations (Hajnić & Boshkoska, 2021). Organizational process models are commonly used to achieve BPI. Using Business Process Improvement (BPI) and Business Process Reengineering, professionals in the BPM department continuously examine the company’s business processes and make improvements or changes as needed (BPR). The maximizing of investment is the primary goal of every business. On the other hand, other firm stakeholders have grown in importance (Reijers, 2021). This means that a company’s investors or owners will see increased profits without reducing costs. When we use the word “business efficiency,” we’re referring to all aspects of a company’s operations, even those that don’t directly affect profit.

Process Trigger

The three types of BPIs listed below ensure that business processes run in unison:  A Process Management process is started when activity in a specific system occurs (Kocaoglu & Acar, 20).

Pull

The BPM can receive data from any other system and transfer it to the database so that the various processing users may read it.

Push

When the BPM sends data to the next system, Push. HRM systems can be relocated with chosen participants’ data by way of recruits.

Business Process Integration Solution

Business process integration can be a difficult task, but one that MuleSoft can help with. As an Enterprise Service Bus, Mule is a low-cost integration tool that makes it possible to connect disparate applications and services (Belchior et al., 2022). Automated business processes can be implemented within a company and between customers, suppliers, and partners. Mule facilitates integration with both data and technology as an ESB. Using Mule as an ESB alleviates the pain of integrating multiple systems. Instant API interconnection with popular third-party software and systems is fast and easy when using Anypoint TM Connectors (Fiorello, 2021). To quickly build integrations and customize business operations, and development company can use Anypoint Studio. As an ESB, Mule eliminates manual processing and simplifies data alignment among the cloud and software products.

 Work Plan

The study evaluated and assessed how APIs might help businesses improve their processes by increasing interoperability and documentation. The research used the qualitative research methodology where different studies conducted in previous studies were analyzed. Their results were compiled to give a credible conclusion of the steps necessary to conclude the research successfully. 

References

Amado, A. R., Amado, M., Silva, F. N., Heitor, T. V., Rodrigues, E. M., Ramalhete, I. M., ... & Miranda, S. (2018). Planning without Baseline Information: Delimitation of Urban and Rural Settlements in Oé-Cusse Ambeno, Timor-Leste. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 144(3), 05018016.

Belchior, R., Guerreiro, S., Vasconcelos, A., & Correia, M. (2022). A survey on business process view integration: past, present and future applications to blockchain. Business Process Management Journal.

Fiorello, N. (2021). A Cloud-based Business Process Automation Platform for Customer Interaction: Research, development, integration, deployment and test of a Business Process Automation platform to manage company customer relations through the cloud.

Hajnić, M., & Boshkoska, B. M. (2022). Integration of the Decision Support System with the Human Resources Management and Identity and Access Management Systems in an Enterprise. In Rational Decisions in Organizations (pp. 203-222). Auerbach Publications.

Labelle, E. R., & Kemmerer, J. (2022). Business process reengineering of a large-scale public forest enterprise through harvester data integration. Croatian Journal of Forest Engineering: Journal for Theory and Application of Forestry Engineering, 43(1), 13-27.

Manik, D. (2022). Impact of Supply Chain Integration on Business Performance: A Review. Jurnal Sistem Teknik Industri, 24(1), 85-106.

McNamara, M. W., & Morris, J. C. (2022). Expanding the Utility of Cross-Sectoral Collaboration in Policy Studies: Present and Future. ANNUAL REVIEW 2021• VOLUME 12, ISSUE, 53.

Ofoeda, J., Boateng, R., & Effah, J. (2019). Application programming interface (API) research: A review of the past to inform the future. International Journal of Enterprise Information Systems (IJEIS), 15(3), 76-95.

Presti, C. (2021). Conclusions, Implications, and Limitations of the Study. In Integrating Performance and Risk in a Management Control System (pp. 117-122). Springer, Cham.

Reijers, H. A. (2021). Business Process Management: The evolution of a discipline. Computers in Industry, 126, 103404.

Shalamanov, V. (2019). Organizing for IT effectiveness, efficiency and cyber resilience in the academic sector: National and regional dimensions. Information & Security: An International Journal, 42, 49-66.

Stelmack, R., & Gomez, D. (2021). Breaking Out of our Silos: How to Strengthen Relationships between Service-Specific Information Operations Communities, and Why We Need to.

Wicaksono, P. A., Atmaja, Y. P., Saptadi, S., Nurkertamanda, D., & Widharto, Y. Designing Strategies to Anticipate Circular Economy Barriers in Furniture Industry.

Andrea Gibson

Andrea Gibson

1710 reviews | 1710 orders
  • Do you need help with an
    online class, essay or assignment?

  • Find the right expert among 500+

    We hire Gradewriters writers from different fields, thoroughly check their credentials, and put them through trials.

    View all writers

Tough Essay Due? Hire Tough Essay Writers!

We have subject matter experts ready 24/7 to tackle your specific tasks and deliver them ON TIME, ready to hand in. Our writers have advanced degrees, and they know exactly what’s required to get you the best possible grade.

Profile picture of ProfWriter

ProfWriter

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Intermediate

Total orders 7134

Competences
Philosophy
English
Archaeology
Profile picture of ProfWriter1

ProfWriter1

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Intermediate

Total orders 3848

Competences
Astronomy
Agriculture
Military sciences
Profile picture of Revaz Pataradze

Revaz Pataradze

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Elite

Total orders 1020

Competences
History
Sociology
Health sciences and medicine
Profile picture of Pro. Nicole

Pro. Nicole

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Advanced

Total orders 1026

Competences
Human Resources (HR)
Macro & Micro economics
Management
Profile picture of Nicole Ashton

Nicole Ashton

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Advanced

Total orders 1197

Competences
English
Archaeology
Gender & Sexual Studies
Profile picture of Prof. Jordan

Prof. Jordan

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Elite

Total orders 1539

Competences
English
Linguistics
Gender & Sexual Studies
Profile picture of Andrea Gibson

Andrea Gibson

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Elite

Total orders 1710

Competences
Linguistics
Archaeology
Sociology
Profile picture of Hanna preston

Hanna preston

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Advanced

Total orders 2223

Competences
English
Archaeology
Political Science
Profile picture of Gilbert Rights

Gilbert Rights

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Elite

Total orders 1004

Competences
English
Business
Marketing
Profile picture of Dr. Payne

Dr. Payne

5

( Reviews)

Staff Level Advanced

Total orders 1836

Competences
Linguistics
Gender & Sexual Studies
Business
View all writers

Find the right expert among 500+

We hire Gradewriters writers from different fields, thoroughly check their credentials, and put them through trials.

View all writers