The Effects of Congruent and Incongruent Sounds in the Background on Memory
Question
I only need the abstract and discussion section for my research paper. I will attach the paper in the files, its already written. I just need you to write the abstract and discussion portions


Solution
Abstract
The research was conducted to determine the effects of
congruent and incongruent sounds in the background on memory. The participants
were given a test to measure their ability to recall information. The results
showed that people who heard congruent sounds could remember more than
incongruent sounds. The study was conducted with two groups of participants.
The first group was asked to memorize a list of words in the presence of
neutral sounds when the researcher played the “How to Take Care of a Puppy:
Bringing a Puppy Home” video. The second group had the same task but listened
to incongruent sounds like birds chirping or oven clocks ticking. Both groups
were asked to recall the list after exposure to different sounds. The results
showed that the group that listened to incongruent sounds recalled more words
than those who listened to neutral sounds. This indicates that background noise
can help boost memory recall in cases where there is no interference between
the information we need to remember and other stimuli. While this study does
not prove that background noise improves memory, it can affect how well we
remember things. This study used an independent group design. Based on the
results, it can be concluded that congruence between auditory and visual
stimuli improves learning and memory because it creates an event that is easier
for the brain to process and store into long-term memory (LTM).
The
Effects of Congruent and Incongruent Sounds in the Background on Memory
In modern psychology, an
individual’s ability to intentionally focus their attention while avoiding
non-relevant distractions establishes a foundational approach for defining
cognitive control and selective attention (Patterson & Kahan, 2022). In
addition, findings from research studies indicate that an individual’s capacity
to selectively attend to appropriate stimuli while showing resistance or
ignorance to conflicting stimuli may lead to enhancements in learning
(Damjanovic & Kawalec, 2021).
On the other hand, many experts have
attempted to interpret the impacts of noise on human perception and memory.
According to Vachon et al. (2017, p. 622), “the occurrence of an unexpected,
infrequent sound in an otherwise homogeneous auditory background tends to
disrupt the ongoing cognitive task.” Cognitive psychologists use people’s susceptibility to
background or noise distraction to understanding the nature of selective
attention and short-term memory. As a result, many theories explain why people
perform better in silence than with sounds in the background (Sörqvist, 2015; Lyxell &
Rönnberg, 2003). The human brain applies visual working memory to retain
information for goal-directed behavior. Congruent and incongruent environmental
sounds have varying impacts on memory while stimulating the brain to process
and maintain information (Rosner
& Milliken, 2015).
Literature
Review
Learning and Memory
Learning and memory go hand in hand.
Learning is the acquisition of information, while memory is the retention of
acquired knowledge. Gupta et al. (2018, p.156) explained that the brain has to
be stimulated for the two to occur. Therefore, when information touches the
brain, it has to be modified in unison so that the system can retain it.
However, how the brain receives and processes information determines its
maintenance (Lachman et al., 2015). For example, the act of processing memory
is different when congruent or incongruent background sounds impact the brain.
As reported by the senior
contributing authors of Psychology 2E,
an Introduction to Psychology textbook, memory is often compared to a computer
processing system. Specifically, memory is an information processing system.
Memory consists of three processes; encoding, storage, and retrieval (Speilman
et al., 2020). Encoding is the initial learning of information, storage creates
a permanent place for the information, and retrieval allows access continuously
over long periods.
Cognitive psychologists Atkinson and
Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model of memory, also known as the modal
model (1968), a structural model which consists of three stores: a sensory
register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). The multi-store
model of memory suggests multiple storages for memories and that memory can
move through the repositories.
Although some scientists argue that
the entire brain is used for memory, some parts have specific functions in both
learning and memory. For example, there is considerable evidence that
epinephrine and glucocorticoid effects on memory are mediated by the amygdala’s
influences (McGaugh et al., 1996). As well as in humans, hippocampal function
underlies the ability to recall specific personal experiences (Fortin et al.,
200 2, p. 458). As claimed in an article by Curtis and D’Esposito (2003), the
prefrontal cortex also plays a crucial role in working memory. Lastly, the
cerebellum is where new memories are encoded (Speilman et al., 2020). All the
brain parts work together to encode, store, and retrieve memories.
Congruent and Incongruent Sounds
It sounds
interactions can influence stimuli collection and processing. Research
indicates that cross-modal semantic congruence facilitates long-term episodic
memory; if a person experiences congruent or low conflict sounds in the
background, it effectively increases their subsequent memory, as Amador et al. (2016, p. 1206)
elaborate.
Incongruent sounds present high
conflict. The mind has to fight the conflict and concentrate to process and
retain the information. Panteleeva
et al. (2021) illustrate that memories triggered by music are related to
incongruence effects. Thus, incongruence musical cues such as sad music with
happy facial expressions trigger more voluntary and involuntary memory.
Research has increased their
intention on people’s ability to concentrate while ignoring background
distractions. Ptok (2019,
p.858) explains that studies show that attending to relevant stimuli
while at the same time resisting conflicting impulses enhances memory.
Moreover, it helps the brain encode task stimuli to retain better-acquired information
(Xie et al., 2022).
However, the impacts are not the same on incongruent distractions. Incongruent
sounds produce a higher conflict to the brain, which it has to cope with to
retain information (Monteiro
et al., 2018; Vo et al., 2021). However, the higher the conflict, the
better remembrance than congruent noises. This is because increased selective
attention resulting from incongruent stimuli gives the brain an encoding
benefit, as explained by Panteleeva
et al. (2021).
The
study intends to investigate memory and learning and the impacts of
distractions on information retention. In addition, it will examine the effects
of congruent sounds and incongruent sounds on the brain’s capacity to process
and retain information, and whether it works better on lower or higher conflict
from background sounds. This
study is crucial as it focuses on understanding the impacts of congruent and
incongruent background sounds on memory. The study will prove the hypothesis
that the brain retains information better under incongruent, high conflict
sounds than when exposed to congruent, low conflict sounds.
Material and Methods
Design
This study used an
independent groups design. The independent variable was congruent and
incongruent sounds. While the dependent variable in the study was memory
retention, in the form of the number of correct answers on the true or false
quiz.
Sample
The study sample
consisted of 10 participants ages ranging from 20 to 73 years old (M = 45.80, SD = 18.43). Fifty percent, or 5 participants were female, and the
other fifty percent or 5 participants, were male. The majority of, or 5
participants were Caucasian (50%), followed by African American or Black and
Hispanic, 2 participants (both at 20%), and then Asian American, 1 participant
(10%). All participants were able to read, write, and speak English
proficiently. Additionally, the sample was selected from a group available to
the researcher.
Materials
The study first
utilized a seven-minute video titled “How
to Take Care of a Puppy: Bringing a Puppy Home.” Secondly, the study
required two different sounds played in the background during the “how-to”
video; 20 congruent sounds and 20 incongruent sounds. See Appendix B for the
two lists of sounds. Lastly, the study utilized a quiz made up of 20 true or
false questions based on the information discussed in the video, see Appendix
C. Both groups will take an identical quiz after watching the video.
Procedure
First, all 10
participants joined the experiment virtually via Zoom. Then the researcher
shared a link for the consent form via Google Forms and read over the form in
its entirety with the group. Next, each participant signed the form and fill
out the demographic section via Google Forms. The researcher then explained the
experiment in further detail; they were instructed on their role and what they
had to do. Finally, the researcher provided time for any questions the
participants had, and the researcher answered them.
At this time, the
participants were randomly separated into two groups using a randomized
numbering program. Group A and Group B; each group had five participants. Group
B was placed in the waiting room on Zoom, and the experiment with Group A
continued. First, the researcher played the “How
to Take Care of a Puppy: Bringing a Puppy Home” video. As the video played,
the researcher started to play the congruent sounds in the background, and they
continued throughout the video. Once the video was completed, the researcher
screen shared the true or false quiz and instructed the participants to record
their answers on paper. When the participants finished the quiz, the researcher
shared the correct answers and asked the participants to count the number of
correct answers. They were then referred back to their Google Form and filled
in their answer in the corresponding spot for Group A. Group A was placed in
the waiting room on Zoom, and the group was brought back. The experiment with
Group B continued. The researcher again played the “How to Take Care of a
Puppy: Bringing a Puppy Home” video. As the video played, the researcher
started to play the incongruent sounds in the background, continuing throughout
the video. Once the video was completed, the researcher screen shared the true
or false quiz again and instructed the participants to record their answers on
paper. When the participants finished the quiz, the researcher shared the
correct answers and asked the participants to count the number of correct
answers. They were referred back to their Google Form and fill in their answer
in the corresponding spot for Group B. Afterward, the participants in Group A
rejoined the Group B participants on the zoom call. Lastly, all ten
participants were instructed to read over the final section of the Google Form,
the debriefing, sign, and submit the Google Form to the researcher.
Results
An independent-samples
t-test was conducted to determine if there was a difference between congruent
and incongruent sounds on memory. Results indicated a statistically significant
difference between the two groups, congruent sounds (M = 10.40, SD = 2.61) and incongruent sounds (M = 15.20, SD = 2.39), t(8) = -3.04, p = .016. Therefore, the hypothesis that incongruent sounds have
more effect on memory than congruent sounds is supported.
Discussion
Congruent sounds
matched the word in the sentence, and incongruent sounds were sounds that did
not match the word in the sentence. This study found that incongruent sounds
had a greater effect on memory than congruent sounds. At the same time, people
performed tasks like reading or writing in a noisy environment than when they
were doing these tasks in a quiet environment. If you are trying to remember
something while listening to music or other distracting sounds around you, try
turning off any music (Curtis and D’Esposito, 2003). ThD’Espositoof the study
showed a significant difference between the two groups. The researchers found
that congruent sounds have more effect on memory than incongruent sounds. This
can be explained by the fact that congruent sounds are familiar to us, and we
have heard them before, so they do not distract us from our task. However,
incongruent sounds are unfamiliar, and we must pay attention to what they are
saying to understand them.
The
researchers also found no difference between congruent and incongruent sounds
in their ability to increase or decrease learning (Panteleeva et al., 2021).
This could be because both groups were unfamiliar with each other’s language,
and others had difficulty communicating, which frustrated both groups. Less
learning occurred due to this frustration. These findings are consistent with
previous research done by Cozby and Bates (2018), who found that learners
remember more when they are provided with congruent sounds than incongruent
ones. The researchers suggest that this may be because the congruent sounds
were more familiar and easier to process.
In
contrast, the incongruent sounds were unfamiliar and more difficult to process.
The researchers also suggest that because of the complexity of processing
incongruent information, learners are more likely to forget it. Finally, the
researchers suggest that high-level learners would be more likely to remember
congruently than low-level learners because their attention would be focused on
their goal rather than processing background music (Rosner & Milliken,
2015). This seems reasonable as we all know it feels like to be distracted by
music in a bar or café.
Implications
for Future Research
This
study has implications for future research in several ways. First, it
demonstrates the differences between congruent and incongruent sounds and their
effects on memory. This suggests that future experiments should replicate these
results using different sounds and materials to test whether this finding applies
across different situations (Damjanovic
and Kawalec, 2021). Second,
this study also provides evidence that even when you are not trying to memorize
something, your mind still stores information about what is happening around
you at any given time. For example, suppose someone is talking about their
favorite sports team while studying for an exam and later on during the exam (McGaugh,
Cahill, and Roozendaal, 1996). If you hear them talking about something else entirely, like pets or
food, you may recall that. Therefore, future research should explore whether
different sounds affect memory performance differently depending on how many
things one needs to focus on at once and how difficult those things are to do
simultaneously (if two tasks require different parts of your brain).
References
Almadori, E., Mastroberardino, S., Botta, F.,
Brunetti, R., Lupiáñez, J., Spence, C., & Santangelo, V. (2021). Crossmodal
Semantic Congruence Interacts with Object Contextual Consistency in Complex
Visual Scenes to Enhance Short-Term Memory Performance. Brain sciences, 11(9), 1206.
Atkinson, R.
C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its
control processes. In Spence, K. W., & Spence, J. T. The psychology of learning and motivation (Volume 2). New York:
Academic Press. pp. 89–195.
Cozby, P.
C., & Bates, S. (2018). Methods in
behavioral research. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Curtis, C.
E., & D’Esposito, M. (2003). Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex
during working memory. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 7(9), 415–423.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00197-9
Damjanovic,
L., & Kawalec, A. (2021). The role of music-induced emotions on recognition
memory of filmed events. Psychology of Music, 030573562110333.
https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356211033344
Fortin, N.
J., Agster, K. L., & Eichenbaum, H. B. (2002). The critical role of the
hippocampus in memory for sequences of events. Nature Neuroscience, 5(5), 458–462. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn834
Gupta, A., Singh, M. P., & Sisodia, S. S.
(2018). A review on learning and memory. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 8(2), 153-157.
Lachman, R., Lachman, J. L., & Butterfield, E.
C. (2015). Cognitive psychology and
information processing: An introduction. Psychology Press.
Lyxell, B., & Rönnberg, J. (2003). The effects
of background noise and working memory capacity on speechreading
performance. Scandinavian Audiology, 22(2), 67-70.
McGaugh, J.
L., Cahill, L., & Roozendaal, B. (1996). Involvement of the amygdala in
memory storage: Interaction with other brain systems. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 93(24), 13508–13514.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.24.13508
Monteiro, R., Tomé, D., Neves, P., Silva, D., &
Rodrigues, M. A. (2018). The interactive effect of occupational noise on
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190.
Panteleeva, Y., Courvoisier, D. S., Glowinski, D.,
Grandjean, D. M., & Ceschi, G. (2021). Effects of emotionally incongruent
musical excerpts on memory retrieval. Psychology
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Patterson,
L., & Kahan, T. A. (2022). Is the alerting-congruency interaction that is
seen in experiments with stimulus-response motor associations moderated by a
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Psychologica, 225, 103541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103541
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Watter, S. (2019). Congruency encoding effects on recognition memory: A
stage-specific account of desirable difficulty. Frontiers in Psychology, 10,
858.
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effects on recognition memory: A context effect. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de
psychologie expérimentale, 69(2),
206.
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(2020). Psychology 2e. Amsterdam
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definition of an effect with the explanation. Frontiers in Psychology, 6,
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https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000330
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Appendix
Appendix A
INFORMED
CONSENT FORM
Bucks County Community College
TITLE
The Effects of Congruent and
Incongruent Sounds in the Background on Memory
RESEARCHER
Corinna Fake
PURPOSE
You are being asked to participate
in a study regarding incongruent and congruent sounds on memory. This study
aims to examine whether or not background sounds affect memory.
PROCEDURE
The study will take roughly 15
minutes. Participants will be asked to watch a short “how-to” video and answer
20 true or false questions.
RISK AND BENEFITS
There are no know risks to partake
in this study. Potential benefits include becoming more knowledgeable about
background noise and memory and the information from the “how-to” video.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Participants’ identities will be
kept confidential. Each participant will receive a participant identification
number.
●
Participation
in the study is entirely voluntary.
●
Participants
may withdraw their participation at any time.
●
No compensation will be given for this study.
Participants
may contact the researcher by email at the contact information listed below for
any questions or concerns.
By signing
below, you are indicating that you have read and fully understand the contents
of this informed consent form and agree to participate in this study.
PARTICIPANT’S SIGNATURE_______________________________________DATE___________________
RESEARCHER’S
SIGNATURE_______________________________________DATE___________________
Appendix
B
Word List
List
of Congruent Sounds
Dryer
Running
Car
horn
Ice
dropping in the freezer
TV
playing
Cars
passing by outside
Birds
chirping
Floors
creaking
Knocking
at door
Door
closing
Oven
door closing
Smoking
detector battery alert
Sink
running
Text
alert
Toaster
Toilet
Flushing
Vacuum
Soda
can opening
Wind
Chime
Shower
running
Keyboard
Clicks
List of Incongruent Sounds
Elephant
Trumpet
Cars
Crashing
Train
Whistle
Jet/Airplane
Gunshots
Fireworks
Boat
horn
Dinosaur
Rawr
Rooster
Bomb
ticking
Crowd
Cheering
Dolphin
Whistles
Police
Siren
Beatboxing
Motorcycle
Nails
on Chalkboard
Obnoxious
Laughing
Cows
Moo
Explosions
Jackhammer
Appendix
C
True
or False Quiz
- The first supply you need is
premium pet food. (True)
- You should have your puppy’s
name and contact information on the puppy’s ID tag. (True)
- The leash should be 8 feet
long. (False)
- Raising a puppy is much like
caring for an older child. (False)
- You should prepare well in
advance for the arrival of your new puppy. (True)
- Viewing the world your dog will
live in helps prepare. (True)
- An exercise pen is not helpful
if you have a busy schedule. (False)
- When in the car, a puppy should
be in a crate. (True)
- It’s best to introduce a new
puppy when everyone in the home is present. (False)
- Before going into the house for
the first time, take the puppy to his future potty spot. (True)
- Puppies can be treated the same
as adult dogs. (False)
- Puppies need constant
supervision. (True)
- How you interact with your
puppy at first helps with future socialization. (True)
- You should not spend any extra
time with your new puppy. (False)
- Puppies need to be acclimated
to their new home. (True)
- You should not ask for help
from dog walkers or a neighbor. (False)
- As your dog is potty training,
he should go outside regularly. (True)
- You should be on the lookout
for potty signs. (True)
- Puppies have to go to the
bathroom approximately two hours after eating or drinking. (False)
- It is helpful to establish a
routine with your new puppy. (True)



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