Long Memory Information Storage in Multiple Memory Systems

Long Memory Information Storage in Multiple Memory Systems

Memory is the ability to take in information, store it and recall it at a later time. Memory is essential for all our daily activities. Memory enables us to learn new things, form relationships and make decisions. Memory has three basic functions: encoding, storage, and retrieval. However, evidence from various areas of study has shown that memory is a more complicated process than this. Tulving first proposed the idea of multiple memory systems within the brain due to his work with amnesic patients. He showed that a patient he called K.F. could not remember recent events but could remember events pre-dating her accident, despite having no new learning experiences. This shows that there are at least two separate types of memory: Implicit and Explicit, as K.F. was able to retrieve information from her implicit but not her explicit memory (Janacsek, Fiser, and Nemeth, 2012). However, this is not enough evidence to argue for multiple memory systems in humans since it may be possible to have damage to different parts of the brain, which causes distinct types of amnesia. Also, this does not prove that K.F. had a long-term memory for pre-accident information since it could be argued that she was using implicit memories or contextual cues to remind herself about past events. This essay discusses the different types of memory systems and shows that long-term memory information is stored in multiple memory systems.

The Types of Memory Systems

Encoding allows the perception and understanding of information, storage retains information over periods, and retrieval allows for the recovery of stored information. People often forget things once known because they cannot retrieve that memory from the brain (Passer and Smith, 2004). In the early days of psychology, scientists believed all memories were stored in one part of the brain.

The question of how information is stored in long-term memory continues to be debated. There are two main theories regarding the storage of information in LTM: the ‘single system’ theory and the ‘multiple systems’ theory. The ‘single system’ theory suggests that all information, regardless of its characteristics, is encoded in the same manner; however, research suggests that different types of information are processed differently and stored in different ways. This leads us to conclude that we have more than one memory system. The modal model of memory consists of three stores: sensory memory (S.M.), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). For information to enter our LTM, it must first be encoded by S.M. into STM, and then this must be consolidated into LTM. The main problem with this model is how exactly information is transferred from STM to LTM and how it is stored once it gets there. Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed that STM and LTM operate similarly, except that items remain in STM for a much shorter period than those retained in LTM. Information is lost from STM after about 20 seconds through decay or displacement (Sherry and Schacter, 1987).

Information is stored in multiple memory systems in long-term memory rather than only one system. This has been suggested by studying the temporal lobe LTM system and the hippocampus. The temporal lobe LTM system is responsible for storing information about what objects are and where they are located, and this system uses visual/spatial codes to store information. The hippocampus stores information about when and where an event took place, and it uses verbal codes to store information. However, it stores information about what happened at a particular location in the temporal lobe LTM system. Therefore, both locations need to be intact for memories to be formed (Passer and Smith, 2004). Milner, who studied H.M., an individual with bilateral medial temporal lobe damage, demonstrated this, resulting in impaired verbal explicit memories but spared explicit visual memories. When H.M. was asked to recall a word list, he could not recall any words; however, when he was asked if he had seen words on the list previously, he said yes and could point them out from a word list – these are two different types of memory which suggests that there is more than one memory system involved in long-term memory storage.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Multiple memory stores can be used to explain the differences in human behavior and cognitive processes. For example, when people are asked to recall an image they observed a few minutes ago, they often make errors due to decay. On the other hand, when people are asked to remember something they heard, they would better recall it because it is stored in STM. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model states that information has three stages- sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. But there are limitations to this model. For instance, some researchers believe that long-term memory is not a single store but consists of several different stores. This view is supported by neuropsychology and cognitive psychology (Cermak and Craik, 1979). Neuropsychological evidence suggests that there are multiple systems for long-term memory storage. One of the most influential theories about memory systems is proposed by Tulving. He proposed two types of long-term memory: semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic memories are general knowledge about the world, such as knowing what chairs look like or what apples taste like. These memories can be stored for years and even decades without significant decay.

Long-Term Memory

This type of memory provides permanent storage for acquired knowledge that can be recalled with the right cues and strategies. It holds information indefinitely which cannot be lost unless affected by brain damage or disease. There are three different types of memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory (Reber, Knowlton, and Squire, 1996). It is a common fact that memory loss occurs with aging. This can be explained by the idea that there are multiple memory systems, each of which is affected differently by different factors. These memory systems are responsible for storing information, retrieving information, and encoding information. Support for the idea that there are multiple memory systems comes from the results of many studies conducted on amnesic patients, most notably H.M. H.M was an epileptic patient who had surgery to remove his hippocampus and amygdala to prevent seizures from reoccurring (Janacsek, Fiser, and Nemeth, 2012). However, after this surgery, he was unable to form new memories for long-term storage and was unable to recall autobiographical events before the surgery. This suggests that short-term memory is dependent on a separate system from long-term memory, and processing speed is also affected by a separate system. (Schacter, Cooper, and Delaney, 1990)

Sensory memory

This is the initial stage of memory, where we process information from the environment around us, for example, visual and auditory stimuli. This stage is automatic and out of conscious control. However, it only lasts a few seconds before either being lost or transferred to the working memory or long-term memory.

Working memory

The working memory holds information temporarily while processing further in the brain. This can be described as an area where new learning occurs through rehearsal and manipulation of information before storing it in long-term memory. It contains approximately 5 to 9 items for about 20 seconds without further processing. This can be extended if one pays attention to a certain piece of information and rehearses it until it’s needed longer than 20 seconds (Sherry and Schacter, 1987).

Episodic Memory: Episodic memories are memories of episodes or events in your life, such as your first day at school or where you were when you heard the news of September 11th. These memories are often highly personal and emotional because they have been experienced firsthand.

Semantic Memory

Semantic memories are memories for facts and concepts. Semantic memories consist of factual knowledge about the world but do not include information on when you learned this information or what you were doing (MT, 2015).

Procedural Memory

Procedural memories are implicit motor skills or cognitive skills that we have learned to perform over time without conscious awareness, such as how to ride a bike or how to tie your shoelaces. Procedural memory is often contrasted with declarative knowledge.

Psychologists have tried to find a single system that could account for all human memory in the past. However, recently several psychologists have suggested that long-term memory should consist of several different and distinct systems (Gross, 2015). Cermak (1979) proposed five separate memory systems (procedural, semantic, episodic, implicit and explicit). The procedural system is concerned with remembering skills and habits, such as how to ride a bike or how to play the piano (Cermak and Craik, 1979). This memory is stored in the basal ganglia, which controls muscular movement. This area of the brain can be damaged so that patients remember how to perform these skills but cannot consciously remember having learned them in the first place. The semantic system stores knowledge about words and facts. The episodic system stores information about events in our lives, such as our memories. Finally, there is implicit and explicit memory. Explicit memories are conscious memories of facts or events that we learned at some point. Implicit memories are not consciously remembered but can still affect behavior; this includes skills and habits and classical conditioning (Squire and Zola-Morgan,1991). Cermak’s model has been supported by many studies that demonstrate multiple memory systems within long-term memory. Therefore, based on the discussion of the different types of memory systems above, it is true to say that information in long-term memory is stored in multiple memory systems.

Conclusion

Memory is an important part of our lives. Remembering allows us to learn and adapt to our environment, maintain relationships with other people, and function in many aspects of daily life. Despite its importance, we often take memory for granted until it begins to fade with age. The different types of information are stored in different parts of the brain. This supports the idea that there are different memory systems for different information types and suggests that memories are not stored as a single unit but as a collection of distinct memories that may be stored in different places differently. In this case, there are three main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The storage of information in two different systems was also supported by studies on amnesic patients who have suffered brain damage that impairs their ability to store new memories. These studies found that some patients could recall facts and information before becoming amnesic, but they could not remember the facts they had learned. The human memory system is a complex system that is not fully understood. Therefore, extensive modern research should provide information about the different types of memory and their functions.

References

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